Post by Deleted on Jan 14, 2020 7:27:52 GMT -5
Isolationism to Imperialism
Following the Civil War, the United States did not make any efforts to engage in foreign affairs. The nation was still focused on Manifest Destiny and reconstruction efforts consumed most of the nation’s resources. However, the national mood began to evolve towards imperialism as industry grew and European nations continued to build their empires. [1]
Barriers to Imperialism
The United States lacked the ability to have a strong international position. In 1865, the U.S. State Department had less than sixty employees and no ambassadors. There were approximately, 24 foreign ministers in key countries who were hired by bribes rather than experience. In addition, the United States lacked the military strength to have an international presence. The U.S. Navy was greatly reduced in size and many of the ships were outdated.[2]
Influencers
William Seward who was Abraham Lincoln’s secretary of state was an early influence on American imperialism. Seward spoke of his desire to obtain British Columbia, Hawaii, parts of the Dominican Republic, and Cuba. In addition, Seward expressed the desire to control the world. To increase the United States’ international influence, Seward made a treaty with Nicaragua with future ambitions to build a canal in Central America and annexed the Midway Islands. In 1867, Seward bought the Alaskan territory from Russia for $7.2 million.[3]
Brooks Adams was a major influencer in swaying public opinion on American imperialism. In his book The Law of Civilization and Decay, Adams states that democracy was formed by the American frontier and that further expansion was necessary. Frederick Jackson Turner expanded on this idea by advocating for a canal that connects the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, a stronger Navy, increasing influence in the outlying islands, and adjoining other countries. Turner believed these actions were necessary to gain new markets and facilitate population increases. Alfred Thayer Mahan also advocated for a stronger Navy and the construction of an interocean canal. In addition, in The Influence of Seapower upon History, Mahan suggested the development of naval bases for fueling purposes. The United States government heeded to Mahan’s advice which lead to the Naval Act of 1890. By 1898, the United States had the third largest navy in the world. [4]
Influencing Factors
Industrialization increased the demand for international trade and for better deals on raw materials. As a result, the United States began trending towards an expansionist foreign policy. In 1865, the United States’ exports totaled $234 million. By 1898, American exports grew to $1.3 billion. In addition, imports grew from $238 million in 1865 to $616 million in 1898. [5]
Religious and progressive leaders contributed to imperialism by desiring to spread their values abroad. Editors for Century, Outlook, and Harper’s advocated for the United States’ responsibility to spread democracy. Likewise, Protestants began to form missionary societies to evangelize the Christian message to other parts of the world. Social reformers tried to help less industrialized nations achieve a higher standard of living and understand the concept of democracy. Unfortunately, much of these efforts were driven by White supremacy and the obligation to help people deemed less evolved. [6]
Acquisition of Hawaii
Business people in the United States were interested in Hawaii’s sugarcane industry. After several trade agreements before 1890, Hawaii was able to export all of its sugar to the United States tariff free. However, native Hawaiians felt that American sugar companies were using economic and political power to exploit the Hawaiian people. Queen Liliuokalani sympathized with this resentment towards Americans which scared American business people. As a result, business people influenced the American minister to Hawaii John Stevens to stage an armed revolt to counter the queen’s efforts and seize the islands as an American protectorate. In 1898, Hawaii was annexed to the United States. [7]
The Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War was a pivotal point in the United States’ development as an empire. The United States established its reputation as a major military power and seized land from Spain which was another major empire. [8] Therefore, the Spanish-American war was influential in the United States’ evolution to becoming an imperialistic nation.
The American people had empathy for the Cuban independence movement and disliked Spain’s efforts to quell the rebellion. Americans likened the Cuban rebel’s cause to their own American Revolution against the British. In addition, shippers and businesspeople associated with the sugar industry pressured the United States to intervene to protect their business interests. The Cuba Libre movement established two offices in the United States which influenced Americans to support Cuban independence. Several newspapers utilized sensational stories to persuade Americans to support intervention in Cuba which became known as yellow journalism. [9]
Initially, President William McKinley did not support war with Spain. This changed in 1898 when McKinley ordered the United States’ newest battleship the USS Maine to observe the situation and prepare to evacuate American citizens. On February 15, the USS Maine exploded off the coast of Cuba and over 250 sailors died. Yellow journalists kindled American anger by writing stories that blamed Spain for the explosion. Historians believe the explosion was due to storing gunpowder too close to the heat boilers, but sensational news stories rallied Americans to demand war with Spain. McKinley demanded that Spain discontinue its practice of keeping Cuban natives in military camps and to grant Cuba independence. When Spain refused, McKinley requested congress to declare war. [10]
The United States focused its military actions beyond helping Cuba gain independence by conducting several operations in the Pacific Ocean to benefit business people who desired to expand their markets into China. This resulted in a decisive naval victory and army occupation in the Philippines. [11] As a result of the war, the United States gained control over Puerto Rico and Guam. In addition, the United States paid Spain $20 million for control over the Philippines. [12]
The United States governed the Philippines until 1946. During this time the United States invested in improving the lives of Filipinos by building transportation infrastructure, hospitals, and schools. Cuba was declared independent, but the United States used its power to govern the country’s economic agreements and foreign policy. [13]
Influence in China
After the Spanish-American War, the United States had American ports and coaling stations in the Philippines. This resulted in American interest in expanding business activities in China. Several countries began increasing their spheres of influence in China which prompted the United States to follow suit. European nations were willing to share the Chinese market, but the United States wanted the entire market for themselves. In 1896, several business people formed the American Asiatic Association to create trade opportunities in China. In 1899, Secretary of State Hay introduced Open Door notes that gave free access to the Chinese market for all, but greatly favored the United States. Since the United States was cheaply and efficiently producing better quality products, the United States was able to flood the Chinese market with American goods. [14]
A year after the Open Door notes, a group known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists fought to expel all western nations in what became known as the Boxer’s Rebellion. The United States joined Great Britain and Germany in fighting these insurgents. Up until the 1949 adoption of communism, the United States used military involvement and diplomacy to maintain its preferential treatment by China in trade agreements. [15]
Roosevelt’s Big Stick
Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy was described as “speaking softly and carrying a big stick.” Roosevelt believed that it was unnecessary to use military force to achieve foreign policy goals, but the threat of force was a useful tool to achieve these goals. Roosevelt believed that the United States had an obligation to police the world. [16]
For trade and military purposes, Roosevelt was committed to building a canal that connected the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. A treaty with Colombia to use land in Panama to build the canal failed. As the Panamanian revolution took place, the United States sent battleships to the coasts of Colombia. This blocked Colombia from moving in troops to end the revolution. A week later, Roosevelt recognized the new nation of Panama, offered them a deal to allow the United States to build the canal, and established Panama as an American protectorate until 1939. Construction began on the Panama Canal in 1904 and the canal was opened in 1914. [17] The Panama Canal was the largest and most expensive project ever attempted by a nation and was considered the greatest scientific achievement of the era. [18]
Roosevelt wanted to send the message to European countries that the age of colonization was over and that interference in other countries would not be tolerated. However, Roosevelt sent the message to Central and South America that the United States would intervene in their regions if it was necessary to maintain peace and stability. The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary before congress boldly declared the United States’ right to foreign intervention when it is deemed necessary. Roosevelt used this philosophy to protect Panama and Colombia and to manage the Dominican Republic’s custom service revenues. [19]
Wilson’s Foreign Intervention
President Woodrow Wilson desired to reduce foreign interventions but found reduced interventions hard to implement. In fact, Wilson intervened in foreign affairs more than his predecessors. In 1915, Wilson sent the Marines to Haiti following the assassination of the Haitian president in order to restore order and protect United States’ banking interests. The United States then assumed control over Haiti’s foreign policy and financial administration. In 1916, Wilson sent the Marines to the Dominican Republic to ensure that they paid their debt owed to the United States. In 1917, the Marines were sent to Cuba to protect American sugar plantations from rebels. The United States occupied Cuba for four years. In addition, between the years of 1914 and 1915, the United States unsuccessfully intervened in Mexico’s affairs to overthrow Carranza’s government. [20]
The era between the end of the Civil War and the start of World War 1 involved a major evolution in the United States’ focus abroad. The United States evolved from an isolationist nation to an imperial nation that believed its duty was to police the world. As westward expansion was coming to an end, Americans looked abroad to fulfill their frontier spirit. Theodore Roosevelt’s “big stick” policy established the premise for the United States' involvement in foreign intervention which would be continued by new administrations.
Bibliography
"Chapter 22: The Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914." In U.S. History, edited by Sylvie Waskiewicz, Janssen Volker, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, & P.S. Corbett, 641-664. Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2014.
"Chapter 23: Americans and the Great War." In U.S. History, edited by Sylvie Waskiewicz, Janssen Volker, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, & P.S. Corbett, 665-682. Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2014.
UMUC. Module 2: The Progressive Era. n.d.
Footnotes:
1. Sylvie Waskiewicz, Janssen Volker, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, & P.S. Corbett. (Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2014), 642.
2. Waskiewicz, 642-643.
3. Waskiewicz, 643.
4. Waskiewicz, 645-647.
5. Waskiewicz, 644.
6. Ibid.
7. Waskiewicz, 647.
8. Waskiewicz, 648.
9. Waskiewicz, 649.
10. Waskiewicz, 650-651.
11. Waskiewicz, 651.
12. Waskiewicz, 653.
13. Waskiewicz, 654.
14. Waskiewicz, 655-656.
15. Waskiewicz, 656-657.
16. Waskiewicz, 658.
17. Waskiewicz, 659.
18. UMUC. Module 2: The Progressive Era. n.d.
19. Waskiewicz, 660.
20. Waskiewicz, 665-666
Following the Civil War, the United States did not make any efforts to engage in foreign affairs. The nation was still focused on Manifest Destiny and reconstruction efforts consumed most of the nation’s resources. However, the national mood began to evolve towards imperialism as industry grew and European nations continued to build their empires. [1]
Barriers to Imperialism
The United States lacked the ability to have a strong international position. In 1865, the U.S. State Department had less than sixty employees and no ambassadors. There were approximately, 24 foreign ministers in key countries who were hired by bribes rather than experience. In addition, the United States lacked the military strength to have an international presence. The U.S. Navy was greatly reduced in size and many of the ships were outdated.[2]
Influencers
William Seward who was Abraham Lincoln’s secretary of state was an early influence on American imperialism. Seward spoke of his desire to obtain British Columbia, Hawaii, parts of the Dominican Republic, and Cuba. In addition, Seward expressed the desire to control the world. To increase the United States’ international influence, Seward made a treaty with Nicaragua with future ambitions to build a canal in Central America and annexed the Midway Islands. In 1867, Seward bought the Alaskan territory from Russia for $7.2 million.[3]
Brooks Adams was a major influencer in swaying public opinion on American imperialism. In his book The Law of Civilization and Decay, Adams states that democracy was formed by the American frontier and that further expansion was necessary. Frederick Jackson Turner expanded on this idea by advocating for a canal that connects the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, a stronger Navy, increasing influence in the outlying islands, and adjoining other countries. Turner believed these actions were necessary to gain new markets and facilitate population increases. Alfred Thayer Mahan also advocated for a stronger Navy and the construction of an interocean canal. In addition, in The Influence of Seapower upon History, Mahan suggested the development of naval bases for fueling purposes. The United States government heeded to Mahan’s advice which lead to the Naval Act of 1890. By 1898, the United States had the third largest navy in the world. [4]
Influencing Factors
Industrialization increased the demand for international trade and for better deals on raw materials. As a result, the United States began trending towards an expansionist foreign policy. In 1865, the United States’ exports totaled $234 million. By 1898, American exports grew to $1.3 billion. In addition, imports grew from $238 million in 1865 to $616 million in 1898. [5]
Religious and progressive leaders contributed to imperialism by desiring to spread their values abroad. Editors for Century, Outlook, and Harper’s advocated for the United States’ responsibility to spread democracy. Likewise, Protestants began to form missionary societies to evangelize the Christian message to other parts of the world. Social reformers tried to help less industrialized nations achieve a higher standard of living and understand the concept of democracy. Unfortunately, much of these efforts were driven by White supremacy and the obligation to help people deemed less evolved. [6]
Acquisition of Hawaii
Business people in the United States were interested in Hawaii’s sugarcane industry. After several trade agreements before 1890, Hawaii was able to export all of its sugar to the United States tariff free. However, native Hawaiians felt that American sugar companies were using economic and political power to exploit the Hawaiian people. Queen Liliuokalani sympathized with this resentment towards Americans which scared American business people. As a result, business people influenced the American minister to Hawaii John Stevens to stage an armed revolt to counter the queen’s efforts and seize the islands as an American protectorate. In 1898, Hawaii was annexed to the United States. [7]
The Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War was a pivotal point in the United States’ development as an empire. The United States established its reputation as a major military power and seized land from Spain which was another major empire. [8] Therefore, the Spanish-American war was influential in the United States’ evolution to becoming an imperialistic nation.
The American people had empathy for the Cuban independence movement and disliked Spain’s efforts to quell the rebellion. Americans likened the Cuban rebel’s cause to their own American Revolution against the British. In addition, shippers and businesspeople associated with the sugar industry pressured the United States to intervene to protect their business interests. The Cuba Libre movement established two offices in the United States which influenced Americans to support Cuban independence. Several newspapers utilized sensational stories to persuade Americans to support intervention in Cuba which became known as yellow journalism. [9]
Initially, President William McKinley did not support war with Spain. This changed in 1898 when McKinley ordered the United States’ newest battleship the USS Maine to observe the situation and prepare to evacuate American citizens. On February 15, the USS Maine exploded off the coast of Cuba and over 250 sailors died. Yellow journalists kindled American anger by writing stories that blamed Spain for the explosion. Historians believe the explosion was due to storing gunpowder too close to the heat boilers, but sensational news stories rallied Americans to demand war with Spain. McKinley demanded that Spain discontinue its practice of keeping Cuban natives in military camps and to grant Cuba independence. When Spain refused, McKinley requested congress to declare war. [10]
The United States focused its military actions beyond helping Cuba gain independence by conducting several operations in the Pacific Ocean to benefit business people who desired to expand their markets into China. This resulted in a decisive naval victory and army occupation in the Philippines. [11] As a result of the war, the United States gained control over Puerto Rico and Guam. In addition, the United States paid Spain $20 million for control over the Philippines. [12]
The United States governed the Philippines until 1946. During this time the United States invested in improving the lives of Filipinos by building transportation infrastructure, hospitals, and schools. Cuba was declared independent, but the United States used its power to govern the country’s economic agreements and foreign policy. [13]
Influence in China
After the Spanish-American War, the United States had American ports and coaling stations in the Philippines. This resulted in American interest in expanding business activities in China. Several countries began increasing their spheres of influence in China which prompted the United States to follow suit. European nations were willing to share the Chinese market, but the United States wanted the entire market for themselves. In 1896, several business people formed the American Asiatic Association to create trade opportunities in China. In 1899, Secretary of State Hay introduced Open Door notes that gave free access to the Chinese market for all, but greatly favored the United States. Since the United States was cheaply and efficiently producing better quality products, the United States was able to flood the Chinese market with American goods. [14]
A year after the Open Door notes, a group known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists fought to expel all western nations in what became known as the Boxer’s Rebellion. The United States joined Great Britain and Germany in fighting these insurgents. Up until the 1949 adoption of communism, the United States used military involvement and diplomacy to maintain its preferential treatment by China in trade agreements. [15]
Roosevelt’s Big Stick
Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy was described as “speaking softly and carrying a big stick.” Roosevelt believed that it was unnecessary to use military force to achieve foreign policy goals, but the threat of force was a useful tool to achieve these goals. Roosevelt believed that the United States had an obligation to police the world. [16]
For trade and military purposes, Roosevelt was committed to building a canal that connected the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. A treaty with Colombia to use land in Panama to build the canal failed. As the Panamanian revolution took place, the United States sent battleships to the coasts of Colombia. This blocked Colombia from moving in troops to end the revolution. A week later, Roosevelt recognized the new nation of Panama, offered them a deal to allow the United States to build the canal, and established Panama as an American protectorate until 1939. Construction began on the Panama Canal in 1904 and the canal was opened in 1914. [17] The Panama Canal was the largest and most expensive project ever attempted by a nation and was considered the greatest scientific achievement of the era. [18]
Roosevelt wanted to send the message to European countries that the age of colonization was over and that interference in other countries would not be tolerated. However, Roosevelt sent the message to Central and South America that the United States would intervene in their regions if it was necessary to maintain peace and stability. The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary before congress boldly declared the United States’ right to foreign intervention when it is deemed necessary. Roosevelt used this philosophy to protect Panama and Colombia and to manage the Dominican Republic’s custom service revenues. [19]
Wilson’s Foreign Intervention
President Woodrow Wilson desired to reduce foreign interventions but found reduced interventions hard to implement. In fact, Wilson intervened in foreign affairs more than his predecessors. In 1915, Wilson sent the Marines to Haiti following the assassination of the Haitian president in order to restore order and protect United States’ banking interests. The United States then assumed control over Haiti’s foreign policy and financial administration. In 1916, Wilson sent the Marines to the Dominican Republic to ensure that they paid their debt owed to the United States. In 1917, the Marines were sent to Cuba to protect American sugar plantations from rebels. The United States occupied Cuba for four years. In addition, between the years of 1914 and 1915, the United States unsuccessfully intervened in Mexico’s affairs to overthrow Carranza’s government. [20]
Conclusion
The era between the end of the Civil War and the start of World War 1 involved a major evolution in the United States’ focus abroad. The United States evolved from an isolationist nation to an imperial nation that believed its duty was to police the world. As westward expansion was coming to an end, Americans looked abroad to fulfill their frontier spirit. Theodore Roosevelt’s “big stick” policy established the premise for the United States' involvement in foreign intervention which would be continued by new administrations.
Bibliography
"Chapter 22: The Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914." In U.S. History, edited by Sylvie Waskiewicz, Janssen Volker, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, & P.S. Corbett, 641-664. Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2014.
"Chapter 23: Americans and the Great War." In U.S. History, edited by Sylvie Waskiewicz, Janssen Volker, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, & P.S. Corbett, 665-682. Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2014.
UMUC. Module 2: The Progressive Era. n.d.
Footnotes:
1. Sylvie Waskiewicz, Janssen Volker, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, & P.S. Corbett. (Houston, Texas: Rice University, 2014), 642.
2. Waskiewicz, 642-643.
3. Waskiewicz, 643.
4. Waskiewicz, 645-647.
5. Waskiewicz, 644.
6. Ibid.
7. Waskiewicz, 647.
8. Waskiewicz, 648.
9. Waskiewicz, 649.
10. Waskiewicz, 650-651.
11. Waskiewicz, 651.
12. Waskiewicz, 653.
13. Waskiewicz, 654.
14. Waskiewicz, 655-656.
15. Waskiewicz, 656-657.
16. Waskiewicz, 658.
17. Waskiewicz, 659.
18. UMUC. Module 2: The Progressive Era. n.d.
19. Waskiewicz, 660.
20. Waskiewicz, 665-666
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